Overview and Brief History:
The Indian sub-Continent is made up of eleven regions: the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, and Rajasthan; each of which has their own distinct culture. The official languages of India are Hindi and English; but over 1,600 languages and dialects are also spoken throughout the country. Over fifteen of these languages, such as Telugu, Gujurati, and Murathi, are constitutionally recognized. Because of these different cultures and languages, India is more like a federation of countries, similar to Europe, than it is its own separate country. India has given the world much in cultural riches and intellectual knowledge. For example, the numeric system and the concept of zero in mathematics that we use today both have their origins in India. Buddhism is another Indian gift to the world.

Civilization along the Indus river valley began to flourish as early as 3000 BC. While little is known of the actual cultures, it is known that these civilizations began in the south and moved northward over time, laying out orderly cities as they went. Archaeological evidence shows that some of the cities had as many as 30,000 residents and contained citadels, granaries, and even indoor toilets. They had a system of writing and traded for goods by sea as far away as Mesopotamia. At its height, the Indus civilization extended over half a million square miles across the Indus river valley and it far outlasted the concurrent ancient civilizations of Egypt and Sumer.

About 1500 BC, Aryans from the north of India invaded, bringing the Sanskrit language and alphabet and establishing the caste system and the basis of several Indian religions. The Aryans eventually settled in the Ganges valley and built large kingdoms throughout much of northern and eastern India. The Persians invaded around 500 BC but only occupied the area around the Indus for a relatively brief period of about 150 years. The Persians were in turn supplanted by the Greeks under Alexander Great, who swept through the country as far as the Beas River in 326 BC. But Alexander’s overextended army was unable to reach the Ganges river where Aryan-based kingdoms continued their development. During this time, the Indian Siddhartha Gautama founded the religion of Buddhism, a profoundly influential work of human thought still espoused by much of the world.

As Greek interests turned away from India, the sub-continent was retaken by a king known as Chandragupta who conquered his way westward well into Afghanistan. This was the beginning of the Mauryan empire which facilitated the spread of Buddhism across central Asia. After the demise of the Maurya dynasty, the empire separated into kingdoms and smaller dynasties. These local kingdoms enjoyed relative autonomy for the next few hundred years.

After AD 319, the Guptas dynasty conquered and consolidated much of India and after the Guptas, six separate kingdoms coexisted in relative peace. During this period of calm and stability in India’s history, culture flourished and incredible temples were built. This lasted for several hundred years until the dawn of the Muslim era in 1001. Arab armies crossed the Khyber pass and attacked and looted cities for a period of twenty-five years and then left India in relative peace for another one-hundred-and-fifty years. The Arabs returned in 1192 and laid waste to the country and its Buddhist temples. By 1202 they had conquered the Hindu kingdoms along the Ganges but had left the southern majority of India free. Following the Arabs, Turkish kings ruled until 1397 when the Mongols, lead by Tamerlane, invaded.

Following Tamerlane’s departure, Islamic northwestern India fragmented into a chaotic period of perpetual struggles between competing warlords until 1527, when the enlightened Mongol leader Babur came into power. Babur began the Mughal dynasty, whose six emperors would have a profound influence on Indian culture. During this time, the empire expanded further into the Hindu south and the Taj Majal was built. Just as the Mughal dynasty began to decline, the Europeans entered the picture.

In 1510, a Portugese by the name of Alfanso de Albuquerque captured Goa and made it the capital of Portuguese territories in India. In 1610, the British East India Company created its own outpost at Surat. Once in India, the British began to actively compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French and through a combination of combat and clever alliances with local princes, the East India Company gained control of all European trade in India by 1769.

In 1784, after financial scandals in the Company alarmed British politicians, the Crown assumed half-control of it and began the transfer of power away from the Company and into royal hands. A year-long Indian rebellion against the occupiers in1858 prompted the British government to finally seize total control of all British interests in India and establish the country as a part of the Empire. As the 20th century dawned, there were increasing movements in India towards self-rule; but also at this time, growing tensions between Hindus and Muslims over a potential Hindu majority government made Muslims wary of independence. In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. Under mounting pressure, the British finally promised to leave India by 1947.

When the British left, they created the separate Muslim states of Pakistan and Bangladesh (known at that time as East Pakistan). Violence erupted when stranded Muslims and Hindu minorities in the areas fled in opposite directions. Within a few weeks, half a million people had died in the course of the greatest migration of human beings in the world's history. The British returned to help restore order.

Immigration to the United States and Albuquerque:
Immigration by Indians in America was quite slow in getting started. By the twentieth century, only a little over five-hundred Indians had immigrated. American interest in India picked up in the latter part of the nineteenth century as a few traveling Indians made the public aware of their struggle for independence from Britain. Sympathetic liberals on the east coast began to study Indian culture and Ramakrishra Vedanta Centres arose in the late 1890s as places of retreat for students of the Vedanta. The majority of these early Indian immigrants were workers or students. Scholarships were created by dissidents in India to send bright students to American universities, mainly in the northeast, to be educated. Those Indians who came for employment tended to disembark on the west coast.

In response to the rampant discrimination of Asians at the time and the recent implementation of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1887, these west coast immigrants referred to themselves as "Aryan Hindus of the Indo-Iranian stock" to differentiate themselves from Asians. As the presence of Indians was negligible before the 20th century, their immigration was not deemed as threatening, and so it was not restricted.

Most Indians who came to the western U.S. were from the northern agrarian state of Punjab where overpopulation had pushed would be farmers off of the land. Most of these immigrants wished to acquire land to farm for subsistence. However, most of them became day laborers instead.

According to the census of 1900, 2,050 people of Indian heritage resided within the United States. This number included both Anglo-Indians and Indian immigrants. This Indian population was often referred to as Hindus, irrespective of their actual religion, to distinguish them from Native American Indians. Although Indians had escaped the anti-Asian racism of the late nineteenth century, they did not escape racism entirely and soon became the target of not only Anglo-Americans, but Asians as well. Jobs were becoming scarce, and competition by hard-working Indians was seen as threatening. n1917, Congress passed an Exclusion Act barring Indian immigration over President Woodrow Wilson's veto. Following this Act, the number of Indians in the U.S. dwindled and Indian culture slowly assimilated into the American melting pot.

In 1946, the Luce-Cellar bill, which provided for the admission of and citizenship for one-hundred Indians per year, was signed into law. After India gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, a second wave of Indian immigration began. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 allowed entire Indian families to move to the U.S. 6,474 Indians entered the United States between 1948 and 1965. Following this time, there has been a tremendous increase in Indian immigration and today, the Indian population in America consists of over 1.6 million people.

Most of the Indian immigrants to Albuquerque arrived in the U.S. following the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 and the greatest number arrived during the 1970's-80's. Many were recruited to fill openings here as engineers and scientists at the local laboratories, or university professors or medical doctors. Most of the Indian immigrants in Albuquerque were English speakers before they left India and were primarily educated in India although many achieved advanced degrees after they arrived in the States.

Language and Cultural Traditions:
As noted in the Overview, there are a myriad of languages spoken in India. Of them, Telegu, Gujurati, Hindi, and Murathi are spoken and maintained to some degree in Albuquerque. Religion is another important part of Indian life in America. All four of the major religions practiced in India are represented in Albuquerque: Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, and Christian. There are churches, mosques, and temples in Albuquerque but no one place of worship for Hindus. Pooja, or praying to the Hindu gods, is practiced by some with their family every morning but only on certain holidays by others.

Many of the women we interviewed wear saris fairly regularly and always for social occasions. Some have never worn Western clothing as they find their traditional dress more comfortable. Males typically wear Indian shirts, or kurta, on religious or other special occasions. Some women in the community sew Indian clothing for their family and friends. Many Indian women wear the painted dot or bindi on their forehead. Traditionally, bindi were sacred red symbols worn on the forehead by married women as a sign of fertility. Now, however, they are often simply worn for cosmetic purposes.

Most of Albuquerque’s Indian immigrants like to eat Indian cuisine for at least one daily meal, if not all of them. There are two Indian groceries in Albuquerque that cater to this immigrant population. The spice, curry, plays an important role in Indian cooking.

Respect for ones elders is still a very important part of Indian culture. Several first and second-generation immigrants still practice the tradition of saying namaste and touching the feet of elders rather than shaking hands. Namaste essentially translates to “I bow to the divine in you.” Pooja, or praying to the Hindu gods, is practiced every morning by some families; but more commonly just on holidays by others.

Certain cultural rituals continue to be performed by people in the community. Arranged marriages are common among the older generation, and most expect their children to continue this tradition here. While endogamy is the basis for this practice, one of the younger people we interviewed suggested that Indians are now more receptive to inter-state and inter-caste marriage, although not inter-religious forms. Couples will also date for longer periods of time than in the past before they marry. One person we spoke to performs Havans, or a fire ritual, each time they move into a new house. Fragrance is lit in the home as a good omen.

Artistic Cultural Traditions:
       
The Indian Association of New Mexico brings Indian classical musicians to Albuquerque for public performances twice annually; but there are local musicians who perform publicly as well. There is at least one sitar player and one tabla player. The sitar player’s great-grandfather was a well-known folk musician in India. His father was a professional Indian musician and two of his brothers play professionally as well. The sitar is traditionally accompanied by a tabla to keep the complicated beat in a typical raga. The sitar is long-necked with 20 metal frets, 6 or 7 main strings, 13 sympathetic strings and a gourd resonator. It is from northern India. The tabla is a percussion instrument consisting of a pair of drums.

Classical Indian dance is very popular among the Indian commuinty in Albuquerque. It is taught by members of the local community, one of whom is exceptionally talented. We attended a performance of Bharatanatyam, or narrative dance, that is associated with southern India and is said to have originated 3,000 years ago. It was first danced by Lord Shiva to create the fifth veda, or scripture, which also includes music and dance. He taught the dance to Bharat and told him to teach the dance to rest of humankind.

When Muslims came to southern India, they perceived the dance as seductive entertainment and not as devotion to the different deities and discouraged the practice. About a hundred years ago, a female dancer named Rukmini Devi began performing Bharatanatyam again to demonstrate its devotional character and her performances sparked an international renaissance in the art form.

In Albuquerque, the physical dance steps and movements are taught without discussion of history or theory. In India however, these dimensions are intimately tied to the dance. The dance teaches both discipline and culture. In India, one would only be allowed to perform these dances publicly after five years of study and following a graduation ceremony called Arangetram. Classical dances such as this, because of the history involved in addition to the theory, can help Indians to revive portions of this dying culture. Other examples of Classical Indian dance forms include Kuchipudi, Kathak, Manipuri, and Odissi.

The music that accompanies the dance is called Carnatic music. It contains a rhythm of five different beats: 3 beat, 5 beat, 7 beat, and 9 beat. We were also told that fewer men practice Bharatanatyam in the U.S. than in India, although even there it is predominantly a woman’s dance.

The name, Bharatanatyam, can be divided by syllables that give meaning to the various elements of the dance. The first syllable, “Bha,” comes from Bhavam or expressions used to convey emotions. The second syllable, “Ra,” comes from Ragam or melody. The third syllable, “Ta,” comes from Talam, meaning rhythm. Natyam is the word for dance. Steps, poses, single and double hand gestures, and jumps are used as narratives. For example, in the story of Matsya Avatar, a reference is made to an impending flood. Vishnu, incarnated as a fish, tells the young King Manu to build a huge boat capable of carrying the seven sages, seeds of all the plants, and one animal of each type. This story is conveyed through a complex combination of rhythm, gesture, and movement.

Events and Festivals:
Indian ritual events and festivals that are open to the public include Navratri, or the Festival of Nine Days, and Diwali, the Festival of Lights. Navratri occurs just before Diwali. This is a festival that is very popular among Gujratis. It is the story of a goddess who represents the triumph of good over evil. It begins on the first day of Ashwina, and in 2002 it ran from October 7th through the 15th. In the U.S., the celebration usually occurs on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday of the first weekend and Friday or Saturday of the second. Dancers perform with two sticks called dandia and, although there are amateur musicians available to play at this event, oftentimes CD’s are used here. Some people fast for the ritual, others wear new clothing, many decorate their homes with oil lamps, and afterward people often get together to dance. This festival is not well known by non-Indians in Albuquerque and attendance is usually light.

Diwali, on the other hand, is a very well known and well-attended public event. It has grown larger every year and has had to move to a larger venue each year for the last several. It is a religious ritual but has become more of a social gathering in Albuquerque. Although it is Hindu in origin, Muslims and Christians also celebrate it. Diwali represents the return of Rama to his kingdom, Ayodhua, after fourteen years of banishment. It is known as the Festival of Lights because citizens lit his way with earthen oil lamps as a sign of welcome. The use of light is also symbolic of Krishna’s victory over evil. “All evil runs from light,” one person explained. People light their houses with diyas, which are small metal lamps filled with oil and set aglow by igniting a short cotton thread. Patterns of light are also displayed outdoors in various Rangoli designs and children light fireworks. These lighting rituals are said to attract prosperity to the home. In addition, sweets are handed out as people visit from house to house.

Conclusion:
Answers were fairly consistent when we asked about the needs of the Indian community in Albuquerque. First, people lamented the loss of Summerfest. A great deal of discussion revolved around the importance of this festival for minority communities in Albuquerque. Second, they emphasized the need for a cultural center. One person, only half-jokingly, said that it should have a 600-seat theater and a kitchen. “The Indian community is well-connected with the artists here and in India. So, it is not a question of being able to locate talent, but of a place for them to perform.”

While there has also been a push for a Hindu temple in Albuquerque — which someone referred to as the “Hindu Temple-cum-Cultural Center” — the debate between temple or cultural center continues. However, the basic need for space is agreed upon by all. Other suggestions included a radio or media channel and an Indian film festival. Some of the youth saw a need to provide more exposure in Albuquerque to Indian pop culture with contemporary art exhibits, Indian rap groups, as well as bringing in artists who mix cultural practices. One individual also noted a desire for and willingness to teach cooking classes.

Among the formal Indian organizations active in Albuquerque at the time of our survey were the following: The Indian Association of New Mexico; The Hindu Temple Society; Promotion of Arts, Dances and Musical Instruments of India (PADMINI); India Student Association; Friends of India Association; New Mexico Association of Physicians from India; and the Asian-American Association which has Indian membership.