The Korean Community in Albuquerque

Overview and Brief History:
Korea is a peninsula on the eastern edge of the the continent of Asia. It is bordered by the Yellow Sea to the West and the Sea of Japan to the East. Korea includes not only the mainland peninsula, but also a group of nearly 3,000 islands. Korea’s northern border is shared with Manchuria in China, and a small section is shared with Russia. Across the Yellow Sea is the main body of China, and toward the east, the country of Japan. Its is this positioning, between some of the greatest powers of both the ancient and modern worlds, that has shaped, to great extent, Korea’s path and history.

Koreans recognize the year 2333 BC as the beginning of their history as a people. At this time, Hwanung, son of the god of heaven, granted the wish of a female bear to be human. The fruit of this union was King T’angun, who created the first Korean kingdom, Choson, which means Land of the Morning Calm.

Korea’s original human inhabitants came down through Central Asia during the Paleolithic period. Eventually these nomadic tribes settled into villages, which combined to form walled agricultural towns. Tribal states emerged and kingdoms grew from alliances between these states. Three kingdoms dominated during the first century BC: Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla. This period, 57BC-668AD, is known as the Three Kingdoms Era. Both Buddhism and Confucianism were introduced from China during this era. In 668, the three kingdoms were unified under Silla. The Silla court modeled itself after the Tang Dynasty in China but maintained its own distinct Korean culture, language, and art forms.

Because Korea is rich in natural resources and beauty, it has been invaded by the neighboring Chinese, Khitans (from Manchuria), Mongol, Manchus, Russians, and the Japanese. Korea remained independent of complete foreign rule.

The Kingdom of Silla disintegrated in the year 935 AD. In 918, Wang Kong seized power in the former kingdom of Koguryo. Wang Kong reunited the region under the kingdom of Koryo (derived from the name Koguryo, which is the root of the modern Korea). Koryo’s laws were fashioned after Chinese laws and influenced by both Confucian and Buddhist ideals. The renowned Korean traditional art of celadon ceramics developed. Zen Buddhism was the most widespread religion in this stage of the Koryo Kingdom. Buddhism gave the people of Koryo spiritual guidance and Confucianism gave them a political and moral structure.

In the 13th century Koryo was invaded by the Genghis Khan and the Mongol. While the government and aristocratic court fled to one of Korea’s many islands, the common people unsuccessfully fought the Mongol on their own. The Mongol used Korean as a staging point for two unsuccessful invasions of Japan. Eventually, General Yi Song-gye, a Confucian master, toppled the Mongol-friendly government in 1392. The Choson Dynasty, as Yi Song-gye called his new dynasty, after the legendary first Korean kingdom, was ruled by the Yi family until the Japanese invasion of 1910. Seoul was established as the dynasty’s new capital.

The Choson era brought advancements to many areas of Korean culture. During the reign of King Sejong the Great in the early part of the 15th century, a Korean alphabet and grammar were created. The new Korean script, called Hanguel, made Korean literature accessible. Education was promoted for all Koreans, and Korea had one of the highest literacy rates in the world. Another Choson monarch, Sejo, created a system of government with written legal codes. Korea was divided into eight provinces.

Neo-Confucianism emerged and became the state religion. Under Koryo rule, women had enjoyed many rights, including the right to own and inherit land; but Choson Neo-Confucianism took these rights away. For many women of high status, the act of leaving the walls of their homes in daylight was prohibited.

In 1592, Korea was invaded by Japan. The government fled to the north and the peasants formed armed brigades against the invaders. Korean armies fought the Japanese, but were quickly overpowered on land. China sent troops to assist and the Japanese were held at bay for three years until they were finally driven back by the Kobukson, Korea’s newly invented ironclad battleships.

After a long period of peace with Japan the Portuguese, and then Dutch, explorers discovered the Orient. Korea, weary of outside intervention, sealed its borders and withdrew from the world, becoming known as the Hermit Kingdom.

As Europe solidified commercial ties in China, and Russia sought to open relations with Japan in the early 19th century, the Korean government, seeking to stop westernization in their own land, began a bloody persecution of missionaries and practitioners of Christianity. Korea became a pawn in the struggle for power over Japan between the US, Britain, and Germany against an expanding Russia. Korea, which was closely linked to China, found itself caught between it and Japan as well.

In 1860, Korean scholar Ch’oe Che-u developed the belief system of Tonghak, or Eastern Teachings. This combined beliefs from all of Korea’s current and past religious beliefs, and espoused that all people are equal, and should be treated in the same way that one would treat God. This belief system soon became a political movement, and was to play a major role in the coming rebellions against the intervention of China, Japan, Russia, and the West. Protestant Christianity also came to Korea in the 1860’s.

While Western imposition of religious and cultural values threatened the Choson rulers, the commercial value of the developing trade relationships enticed the Korean merchant class. The Yi leaders wanted to close Korea completely to outsiders, but the merchant class opposed this.

Japan launched a coup against the pro-Chinese Yi Dynasty and occupied Korea as th opening of the Sino-Japanese War of 1895. Much of this war was fought on Korean soil. China, in an attempt to hold off Japan, made alliances with Russia, giving over territory in Manchuria. Korea became somewhat divided, influenced by both Japan and Russia. Further rebellions in China brought more European intervention, and Russia and Europe closed on Asia from both sides. Russia moved further into Manchuria, posing a threat to Japan, and Japan marched across Korea into the Russo-Japanese War of 1905.

Japan fought Russia back, deep into Manchuria, and Korea became a Japanese protectorate. Japan took control of all of Korea’s foreign relations and administration in 1910, bringing the Choson Dynasty to an end. Japan imposed its culture and politics upon the Korean people. Korean language and family names were abolished. All mid- and upper-level government positions were filled by Japanese. All obvious Korean nationalists were systematically exiled. Korea’s religions were forbidden, and Japanese Shinto became the official religion.

As Japan exploited Korea’s natural resources and labor force, anti-Japanese forces were growing in Korea and among her diasporic peoples in Manchuria, Hawaii, and elsewhere. World War I gave Koreans hope in the possibility of nationalism. Nationalism had been growing in China along with the movement toward Soviet-style communism. But Japan had its eyes on conquering China. Japan industrialized Korea primarily to assist in its efforts.

In China, Mao Tse-tung and the communists declared war on Japan, while Chiang Kai-Shek and the nationalists declared civil war on the communists. The United States refrained from assisting China against Japan. After Germany and Italy signed an alliance with Japan, Japan moved into the Pacific, initiating World War II.

Early in the War, the West and Russia (USSR) agreed to Korea give its sovereignty after the fighting ended. In order to hasten the surrender of the Japanese, however, the West made concessions to the USSR. It was decided that if the USSR would attack Japan in China, while the US attacked Japan, that the US would accept the surrender of the Japanese south of the 38th parallel in Korea, and the USSR would accept surrender north of the 38th parallel. At the end of the War, Korea was liberated from 30 years of Japanese colonial rule, and was immediately divided in two at the 38th parallel.

Mao Tse Tung’s communists prevailed, creating the People’s Republic of China, and North Korea adopted communism as well. Japan and South Korea were administered by the US. The two new countries, North and South Korea, were formally recognized in 1948. There were some efforts toward reunification, but the two countries could not agree on a government. The North invaded the South in 1950, and while both the USSR and the US had removed their troops after the war, they had also armed their respective sides. The US brought their troops back and. working through the United Nations, backed South. China and the Soviet Union backed North Korea.

In the first year of the war, centrally located Seoul changed hands four times. A cease-fire ended the war in a stalemate in 1953 with little gained for either side. The war took four million Korean lives, and solidified the division of the country. What is left from the war is a mile wide, barren, Demilitarized Zone, or DMZ, that is heavily fortified on both sides. There have been conflicts almost continually since its creation.

Since the war, South Korea’s governments have varied between developing democracies and cruel repression. While the US supported South Korea financially for many years, the country’s own economy began to grow in the late seventies under Park Chung Hee. His rule over the people, however, was harsh (martial law was imposed in 1972), and he was assassinated in 1979. In 1988, the same year that Seoul hosted the Olympics, RohTae-woo was elected. Roh was a conservative military officer and was expected to rule the country oppressively. But instead, Roh loosened up both the political and social systems. Relations were renewed with both China and Russia. In 1998, Kim Dae-jung was elected as the first non-conservative president since the division and he promised to create better relations with North Korea. Kim traveled to North Korea and publically shook hands with North Korea’s Kim Jong Il. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2000 for this effort. South Korea’s current president, Roh Moo-Hyun, was elected in 2003.

After the division, Kim Il Sung declared himself absolute dictator of North Korea, putting into place a governmental structure that would allow for the foundation of another Korean family dynasty that could be passed on to his son, Kim Jong Il. Industrial military and factory production became North Korea’s focus in the 1960’s. This stimulated the economy, but because little funds were dedicated to consumer goods and services, the standard of living for most North Koreans declined rapidly. Kim Jong Il has ruled Korea since Kim II Sung’s death in 1994.

Immigration to the United States and Albuquerque:
There are over one million Koreans living in the United States today. While most of these immigrants came in the years after the country’s division and the Korean War, the history of Korean immigration to the United States began several decades earlier, and for different reasons.

Korean immigration to the US began when they were brought in to replace striking Chinese and Japanese laborers on sugar plantations in Hawaii, In the years 1903-1905, between seven and eight thousand Korean contract laborers, along with several wives an children, came to Hawaii. Many Koreans were willing to immigrate at this time due to the impending threat of Japan and its wars with China and Russia. Official Korean immigration to Hawaii was halted with the 1905 Japanese conquest. Between 1905 and 1924, when the Oriental Exclusion Act prohibited immigration from Asia completely, nearly 1,000 “picture brides” were brought to the US as wives for the Korean plantation workers.

Between 1904 and 1907 more than one thousand Koreans, some directly from Korea, and many continuing on from Hawaii, began arriving on the West Coast of mainland United States. These Koreans settled primarily in and around San Francisco, working in farming, and in the railroad, mining and shipping industries. In 1905, the Korean community in San Francisco founded the first Korean-American political organization, Kongnip Hyop Hoe, or Mutual Assistance Society. This organization published the first Korean language publication in the US, Kongnip Sinpo. In 1909, the Korean National Association was founded. The hub of the Korean community, including the headquarters of the Korean National Association, shifted to Los Angeles in the 1930’s.

The second wave of Korean immigration happened during and just after the Korean war. Most of these immigrants were brides of servicemen, who also brought their families, and/or Korean orphans adopted by Americans. Today, it is estimated that one in four Koreans in the US can trace their origins in this country to one of these Korean war brides.

The 1965 US Immigration Act, which abolished quotas based on national origin, started another wave of Korean immigration. Before 1965, there were around 25,000 Korean Americans, by 1970 the number had risen to 50,000. In the late 70’s and in the 80’s an average of 30-35 thousand Koreans came to the US every year, making them the third largest immigrant group at that time. Since the late 80’s the number of South Korean immigrants to the US has declinrd due to the improved economic and socio-political conditions.

Southern California still holds the largest population of Korean immigrants in the United States. Roughly one quarter of all Koreans in the US live in Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, Orange, and Ventura counties. New York City and the surrounding areas has the second largest, with between fifteen and twenty percent of the total Korean population living in these areas. Most of the Korean immigrants in the United States are from South Korea, but there is a sizable North Korean population, as well. Many North Korean Christians fled the country shortly before the country’s division was finalized.

Being separated from home and family, these North Koreans often continued in their migration to the United States. Most of the South Korean immigrants to the US are also Christian. Christianity is more popular with the urban middle class than with rural Koreans, and these urban middle class Koreans were more likely to be the ones to migrate to the US than their rural counterparts. Also, because Christianity is the prevalent religion in the United States, Korean Christians could expect to have a good deal of American Christian support.

There are no clear trends in Korean immigration to the Albuquerque area. It is believed that the first person to arrive, or at least the first person to stay, came to Albuquerque in the 1960’s to study at UNM. This gentleman still lives in the area and is a recently retired scientist.

Nationally, there is somewhat of a divide between recent immigrants from Korea and those who are second or third generation. There are Korean words to describe people of these different groups. Il se are first generation, i se are second. There is even a word for the generation who were born in Korea, but moved here when they were children. These immigrants are called il chom o se, or generation 1.5. Because of the small size of the community in Albquerque, this division is not apparent. However, there is currently no regular contact between students at UNM and the greater Korean community.

The 2000 Census lists 1,125 Koreans in the city of Albuquerque. The Korean American Association estimates that there are 1,200 total in the state of New Mexico.

Cultural Traditions:
One of the strongest cultural entities holding today’s Korean community together in Albuquerque is the protestant church. There are three Korean Protestant churches in the area, one Presbyterian, one Methodist, and one Baptist, and nearly everyone in the community attends one of them. There was much involvement of the protestant church in early migration efforts, as well as in social resistance to Japan at home. The church immediately became the main focus of Korean communal activity in the United States, and ministers were often leaders of their local communities. Albuquerque’s Korean churches serve as places of communal gathering, help to teach the community’s children language and culture, as well as religion, and help newly arrived Koreans to enter into the community. Services are delivered in Korean, and members are given the opportunity to speak their language to one another. Earlier generations rely much more heavily one the church. Koreans born in the United States tend to attend church less frequently, in part due to not speaking the language as fluently, and also due to their relative comfort in American culture. The Korean Association draws its membership largely from the congregations of these churches.

It is not only Christianity, however, that influences the lives of Albuquerque’s Korean community. All of Korea’s belief systems continue to influence community members. The beliefs that were in place during the Three Kingdoms Era and before, belief in natural and ancestral gods give Koreans their traditions of honoring ancestors and their knowledge and reliance on the lunar calendar. Confucianism, with its concentration on the five principal relationships – between king and subject, father and son, husband and wife, sisters and brothers, and between friends – continues to influence the social behavior of Korean immigrants.

Ways of expressing respect for elders, the strong sense of morality, and the delineation of family roles come from this religion. A sense of the equality of all people, regardless of status, is a gift from the teachings of Buddhism. Buddhism’s focus on the relationship between cause and effect influences the actions of Korean immigrants wherever they find themselves. And, finally, Taoist principals instill in Koreans the ability to adapt. Taoism teaches that man must live within the flow of nature. That man should adapt himself to the nature of the universe, and not attempt to adapt his surroundings to himself. These ideas still heavily influence all forms of Korean creative expression.

The Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic family, which includes Japanese, Mongolian, Tibetan, Turkish, Hungarian and Finnish. Korean is spoken by nearly 70 million people. In early Korean history, tribal states often had their own languages, and in the Three Kingdoms Era each kingdom had its own. Modern Korean is the descendent of the language of the Silla Kingdom that prevailed at unification. There are several dialects of the Korean language today, and all but one, Jeju, are similar enough that speakers can understand one another.

Modern Korean script, called Hanguel (or han’gul), was devised in the 15th century, during the reign of Choson monarch King Sejong. Before this time Korean words were recorded using Chinese script. Hanguel consisted originally of 28 letters, twenty-four of which survive today. There are fourteen consonants and ten vowels. Korean is phonetic, and relatively easy to learn. Each letter has one sound only and there are no silent letters. With the creation of this script came the dissemination of Korean literature to all people. Today, there is virtually no illiteracy in Korea.

The Korean language has many words which are borrowed from Chinese. In South Korea these words are often written using Chinese characters to create a kind of hybrid writing. In North Korea no Chinese characters are used, and all Chinese words are written in Hanguel.

Respect, which is such an important part of the Korean world view, is written in to Korean language and script. Korean verbs have several forms to indicate the status of one speaker to another. Greater social equality in recent times is reflected by the usage of only a few of these forms today.

Members of the Korean community in Albuquerque have been quite successful in passing on the language to their children through the language and culture classes that were, for many years, taught at the churches, and are now taught at the Korean Community Center. The simplicity of the language, and the ease with which it can be learned, are other reasons for this success.

The Korean landscape offered its human inhabitants many unique ingredients with which to make a cuisine that is distinct from that of its neighbors. Much Korean food is preserved using highly developed techniques of fermenting. Bean paste, Kimch’i, and soy sauce are all products of this exploration. Foods are pickled and combined with seasonings such as salt, red pepper, ginger, radish, garlic and onion.

Kimch’i is one of the most popular Korean foods, both in Korea and in the many countries where Korean food is becoming increasingly popular. Kimch’i is generally made of cabbage, although it can also be made with radish or other vegetables. It is fermented through a low temperature process, and is generally very spicy. Kimch’i, developed in an attempt to be able to enjoy vegetables during the cold winter months, was born around the 7th century.

Koreans have also developed finely tuned methods of rice cooking. Rice is a staple dish and is often served as the main dish with several side dishes of vegetables, fish, poultry, meat, or eggs. Korean seasonings include sesame, honey, vinegar, pepper, scallion, garlic, ginger, cinnamon, and mustard.

The Korean table is set by placing two rows, dishes set from left to right, with rice, soup and spoon in the first row, broiled meat, side dishes, and herbs in the second. Sauces are placed in the center of the table. In keeping with Korean etiquette and traditions of respect, elders begin the meal first, and when elders are present there is not a lot of talking. Food is always neatly arranged on the plate.

Food also plays an important role in certain holidays observed by the Albuquerque’s Korean community. During the Korean New Year’s celebration of Sollal, a ritual table called the charye sang is prepared. The feast is offered first to the ancestors and then, later consumed by the family. Ddok-guk, or rice dumpling soup, is a staple of this feast. The dumplings are stuffed with seaweed, vegetables and, at times, meat. Shikhye, a punch made of rice, and sujunggwa, a spicy drink of persimmon and cinnamon are also commonly present. A sweet dessert of crescent shaped green or white rice cakes, called song pyun, along with fruit end the meal. Up to thirty or forty dishes may grace the Sollal table.

In the language and culture schools held at the churches here in Albuquerque children are taught about dance, Tae Kwon Do, traditional dress, old tales, festivals, and history, alongside language. Books are published by the Korean government and sent to Korea’s diasporic communities. These books are aimed specifically at teaching Korean culture to Koreans born or residing elsewhere. Sometimes children are sent for a time to live in Korea to learn these things first hand.

Schools that teach Chinese medicine, which is virtually the same as Korean medicine as both use acupuncture and herbs, offer another way for Koreans in Albuquerque to learn about their traditions.

Respect for elders is one aspect of the Confucian based Korean code of conduct that has been solidly maintained in Albuquerque’s Korean community. Traditional bowing, that is practiced here primarily during the Sollal, or New Year’s celebration, is one expression of this respect. Family members bow to their elders from the youngest up, until everyone is bowing to the oldest members of the family. Children receive money for their bowing efforts. Bowing may also used as a greeting, particularly when greeting an elder.

Artistic Traditions:
Deep in the southern part of the peninsula, the Silla kingdom was isolated from Korea’s neighbors and, therefore, developed its own distinct art and architecture. This distinct style then greatly influenced the art and architecture of the rest of Korea when it was unified under the Silla Dynasty. Korean visual arts, primarily ceramics and painting, use subdued colors and graceful lines. Art, as in other aspects of Korean culture, uses constraint and precision. There are no excesses, and creative expression is free of artifice. The deep love and respect Koreans have for the land is manifested in their art. In contrast to this, there is also at times an element of humor in Korean art. Exaggeration, purposeful errors, and asymmetry of shape are expressions of this humor.

Korean dance is differs from Western ballet in that ballet attempts to convey exterior beauty and skill from precisely controlled and yet elaborate, large-scale movement of the body, whereas Korean dance attempts to express an exterior aesthetic through restraint of movement. This is designed to allow the inner spirit and emotions of the dancer to be expressed as opposed to expressing primarily the skill of the body. Costumes and facial expressions are used toward this aim also. Each detail and small movement of the dance is imbued with meaning.

There is, of course, some movement of the lower body, but always in support of the upper. Dancers’ legs are hidden beneath long skirts. Rhythm in Korean dance is privileged over movement. The dancer creates his or her own rhythm while dancing. Many past masters of Korean dance were also accomplished drummers. Dance is the manifestation of rhythm, and the expression of emotion. The two essential emotions expressed in Korean dance are han, or “resentful sorrow,” and hung, or “boundless joy.” Usually, the dance begins with the sorrowful movements of han and moves on to the faster, celebretory, movements of hung. Social and political struggles are often illustrated in the expression of han, and one common function of the dance is to provide, through the steps leading from han to hung, guidance for eliminating the pain of struggle. In Korean dance, both spiritual and material trancendance are concerns.

Improvisation is another important aspect of Korean dance. Both the music and dance movements are created as the performers procede. There is always a basic theme or story outlined, and the performers adapt the dance to suit the specific occasion. One goal of the performance of Korean dance is to flow with the rhythms of nature. Nature, and therefore the dance, is ever-changing. Dancers learn through long years of training. Multiple teachers, from both past and present, exert influence. From this intensive learning, the individual performer develops his or her own style.

Dance is included every year in the annual Korean Festival in Albuquerque. Sometimes dancers are brought in for the festival from Sedona, Arizona, and other times Albuquerque’s own dancers perform for the event. There was, until recently, a very good dance teacher in Albuquerque, but she has since left the area.

Tae Kwon Do, a martial art tradition thought to be the world’s oldest, is practiced in Albuquerque. Depictions of the art in murals on tomb walls from as early as 3 AD give evidence that Tae Kwon Do has its roots very early in the Koguryo Dynasty (37BC-668AD). In fact, all three of the early kingdoms had martial arts traditions that have influenced modern Tae Kwon Do.

In Koguryo, the Sonbae were a warrior corps who protected the dynasty from the invasions of its northern neighbors. Sonbae practiced Taekkyon, an ancient predecessor of Tae Kwon Do. The Sonbae lived together in groups, studied history and culture, and worked manually on the kingdoms infrastructure, in addition to their Taekkyon practice. One important aspect of ancient Koguryo Taekkyon was the development of the relationship between senior and junior practicioners. Respect was channeled upward, and love downward.

The Silla kingdom had its own version of the Sonbae, called Hwarang, or Flower Knights. The Hwarang were an important part of the Silla unification effort. In a Hwarang publication, entitled Sesokokye, five vows are taken by the Hwarang student – to be loyal to country and king, to honor one’s parents, to be a faithful friend, never to retreat in battle, and to use precise judgement before killing any living thing. These five vows are practiced in Tae Kwon Do today.

Confucianism structured relationships, Taoism taught love and respect for nature, and Buddhism taught the cultivation of the inner realm and its outer expression. All of these beliefs, which were also in their earliest development stages in Korea at the time, were a part of the shaping of this art. Three virtues of generosity, frugality and modesty were instilled in Hwarang students and promoted by them in the outside world. Soobakhee is the name that was used in the Silla kingdom. The root subak means hand technique, whereas the root taekkon means foot technique. Soobakhee contests were festivals of prayer for the safety and welfare of the nation.

Early Tae Kwon Do also migrated to the Paekche Kingdom. Their warriors were called the Soo Sa, and their art was called SooByeokTa. Contests were held in these martial arts, and at times the local winner would go on to be the leader of the village or town, or to be an officer in the Paekche army.

Through the Silla (668AD-935) and following Koryo (918-1392) Dynasties, Tae Kwon Do evolved continuously toward what it is today. During the Koryo era, martial arts were a part of all military training. Masters of the art were promoted to the highest military positions. Contests were held both by the royal court and on the local level. These were always big community events. Tae Kwon Do was systemized during this era at Kookjakam, which was the Koryo dynasty’s major institution of Confucian learning. Subakki, as it was called, was spread to other parts of the world via the growing involvement in world trade.

Subakki continued to be practiced in the Yi Dynasty, but that dynasty placed more emphasis on literary arts than on martial arts. Much was written on the art at this time. Subakki and Taekkyon were outlawed when Japan invaded and occupied Korea from 1910-1945. At the end of World War II several martial arts schools, called Kwans, emerged. In 1955, these Kwans united, and two years later the current name of Tae Kwon Do was adopted. By 1965 Korean police were required to receive Tae Kwon Do training. The Korean general responsible for this, Choi Hong-hi, also founded the Korean Tae Kwon Do Association, and later the International Tae Kwon Do Federation. The KTA eventually became the World Tae Kwon Do Federation, and made its first olympics performance in the year 2000. Today, the ITF is considered to be more traditional, and the WTF is seen to be more of a sport than an art.

Dahnhak is another Korean physical art that has taken hold in other parts of the world, including Albuquerque. Dahn means energy, or vitality, and hak means the study of. Dahn energy is called Ki (also known as Chi). This is seen to be the true essence of everything in the creation. Dahnhak is focused on restoring communication between mind and body through stretching, breathing and meditation. Dahnhak, unlike Tae Kwon Do, has its ancient roots as a daily practice of the people. This is a practice that fell by the wayside long ago and has recently be revived by Korean doctor Ilchi Lee. Dahnhak, like Tai Chi, is a practice for the people and is often practiced in public parks for greater access.

Annual Events and Celebrations:
Sollal, the Korean New Year’s celebration, is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. The exact day typically occurs in late January or early February. Family members gather on this day in the home of the oldest male. Traditional rites called charye are performed to honor ancestors. A ritual table, called the charye sang, is set with up to thirty or forty dishes of food. Foods distinguished by color, such as red and white, are arranged at either end of the table. Dishes are laid in rows with rice and soup toward the back of the table, away from the family, but closest to the ancestors. Meats and their accompaniments are in the next row, then a row of vegetable side dishes and, finally, fruit at the front. This row is closest to the family members, and furthest from the ancestor, as it will be eaten last.

Incense and wine are also a part of the offering. The eldest male in the family engages in jeol, which is a deep bow on bent knees, head or chest to the floor, and arms stretched forward. This bow is performed twice, followed by one shallow bow. Other members of the family follow in order of seniority. After some time has passed, with family members turned away from the table allowing the ancestors to partake, the food is removed and water is offered. Then younger members of the household bow to elders, a tradition called Sebae, from the youngest up, grandparents being last. Elders must offer something in return, such as money for children and food and drink for the older ones. Well wishes are offered all around. Then the feast prepared for the ancestors is eaten by the family. Afterwards it is customary to visit friends to offer respect and well wishes.

In Albuquerque, Sollal is an opportunity to wear traditional clothing, to prepare traditional foods, to visit with family and friends, to practice traditional forms of expressing respect for elders, and for remembering gratitude felt toward ancestors.

The Korean Association hosts a Korean Festival once a year. This is put on by the Korean American Society, and is now held at the Korean Community Center. Typically, the celebration includes a folk dance performance and lots of Korean food.

Conclusion:
When research for this survey began the greatest need expressed by members of the Korean community was the need for space. This would allow them to combine the efforts of the language and culture schools, have space for a senior center, create a youth organization, hold meetings and celebrations. They now have that space. The Korean Community Center and Language School opened in September of 2003 at 9607 Menaul NE.

There are three Korean Protestant churches in Albuquerque:

the Korean Presbyterian Church at 2200 Chelwood NE: http://www.jesuskorea.org/kpc_church.html

the Korean United Methodist Church at 601 Tyler NE:
http://www.kumcabq.com/

and the Korean American Baptist Church at 3315 Tower SW.

There is also a Korean BBQ restaurant on Central NE in the Nob Hill area and three other restaurants that feature both Chinese and Korean cooking.