Overview and Brief History:

The 2000 U.S. Census listed all South Americans together as a single entity. Likewise Central Americans. The total South American population in the city was listed as being 871 persons and the Central American, 826 . The Latin American nationalities with the largest populations in Albuquerque are Colombian, Peruvian, and Chilean, Panamanian, El Salvadorian, and Guatemalan. Because no single one of these countries reached the requisite 750 persons and because, outside of the Brazilians who have an on-again-off-again group, there are no formal organizations, these populations group proved difficult to reach. During this survey we interviewed Venezuelans, Brazilians, Chileans, Peruvians, Colombians, Bolivians, Ecuadorians, and El Salvadorians.

Although archaeological evidence of human beings in the South American continent dates to 12,000-13,000 BC, agrarian civilization did not begin until approximately 1000 BC. Little is known of the earlier civilizations along the western coast of South America; but archaeology informs us that they were primarily hunter-gatherers who lived chiefly off of the bounty of the sea. Primitive plant domestication began to be practiced by these coastal groups at about 4000 BC and by 2000 BC cotton garments were being woven. Also at this time, settlements were being established in the Andean highlands of current-day Peru and llamas and alpacas were domesticated.

By 1500 BC, pottery and large architectural structures appear and irrigated settlements begin to be found ten to fifteen miles inland. U-shaped temples in these spread-out communities suggest the establishment of a common religion. Further north in present day Central America, the Olmec civilization began to flourish. The Olmecs were the first known Meso-American people to understand the concept of zero, develop a calendar, and create a hieroglyphic writing system.

By the time of Christ, distinct cultures had begun to develop in western Peru as well: the Moche on the North Coast, the Paracas and the Nasca on the South Coast, the Cajamarca in the North Highlands, the Recuay in the Central Highlands, and the Pukara in the Titicaca Basin. The cultures of this period were the first true state-level civilizations in the Andes, complete with economic specialization in labor organization, taxation, crafts guilds, and a social hierarchy. In the Yucatan region to the north, the Mayan civilization began to develop with a hierachical social structure as well.

By the end of the 6th century AD, Peru was dominated by two regional cultures, the Wari society in the Southern Highlands, and the Tiwanaku society on the southern shores of Lake Titicaca. Over the next five fundred years the Wari and Tiwanaku cultures expanded from their originating centers. The Wari to the Central and Northern Highlands and the Tiwanaku to the Southern Andes. The two cultures shared a common border in the Moquegua Valley where fortresses attest to likely intense military contacts between them although the two cultures had many similar religious and iconographic features. A long period of drought at the turn of the first millennia brought an end to the dominance of both the Wari and the Tiwanaku.

Meanwhile, in the north during the period of time, the Mayan city of Tikal became the largest city in all of Meso-America. However, at this same time, long-standing Mayan alliances began to break down and trade between city-states declined. At about the same time the Wari and the Tiwanaku were declining further south, the Classic Period of Maya history ended with the collapse of the southern lowland cities. For the next six hundred years, Central America was home to sixteen small rival and warring states, none of whom had dominated the others by the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century.

Following the collapse of the South America Wari and the Tiwanaku cultures, the Andean region reverted to smaller city-state type polities, much like what had occurred in Meso-America to the north. Each city-state was fortified and there was constant warfare as each attempted to maintain independence and/or establish political dominance over the others. One of these Andean city-states was inhabited by a culture known as the Inca.

There are several different stories concerning the origin of the Inca. In the most common one, Manco Capac is credited as being the legendary founder of the Inca capital of Cuzco. According to mythology, Manco Capac came from Lake Titicaca and traveled to Cuzco via underground caves. He finally arrived with his brothers and all of their wives/sisters at the cave of Pacariqtamba in the Valley of Cuzco. After defeating his three brothers, who turned to stone after death, and taking their wives, Manco Capac became the first ruler of the Inca.

As with the surrounding city-states, the Inca domain remained small for several centuries and was no more significant in size or power than any of its neighboring societies in the Peruvian highlands. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that the Inca began expanding and became a true imperial state. The Inca created a complex administrative system to manage the extensive lands and diverse peoples under its empire. They employed administrative devices such as quipus (knotted strings for accounting), administrative sites, storage centers, and a complex network of roads. The Inca civilization achieved remarkable abilities in metal refining and metal working, architecture, weaving, pottery, and other arts. The Spanish conquest of South America brought the Inca empire to an end in 1532.

At the time of the Spanish Conquest, the area across South America from the Peruvian Andes of known as Colombia was home to a culture known as the Chibchas. The Chibchas arrived in Cental America at approximately 1200 BC and introduced the cultivation of corn to South America. Between 400 and 300 BC, the Chibchas migrated from Nicaragua and Honduras to Colombia. Paraguay). Near the end of the first millennium AD, the warlike Caribs migrated from the Caribbean, supplanting the Chibchas in the Colombian lowlands and forcing them to move to higher elevations.

By the 1500's, the Chibchas, were divided into two principal groups: the Muisca, located in the plateaus of Cundinamarca and Boyacá , and the Tairona, who settled along the northern spur of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the present-day La Guajira Department. The Tairona formed a confederation of two groups, one in the Caribbean lowlands and the other in the highlands of contemporary Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The lowlands Tairona fished and produced salt, which they traded for cotton cloth and blankets with their highlands counterparts. Both groups lived in numerous, well-organized towns connected by stone roads.

The Tairona were at the pinnacle of American cultural development at the time of the Spanish Invasion. They possessed such a remarkable goldsmithing ability that modern goldsmiths are unable to replicate the refinement of their original pieces.

At the time the Spanish arrived in the beginning of the sixteenth century, the native population of South America was estimated at 10 to 15 million, More than half of these people were civilized Incas and Chibchas who lived in the northern and central Andes and adjacent areas. The rest were extremely primitive nomads from Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and the Amazon Basin. Disease and oppression brought by colonial rule and immigration greatly reduced the indigenous Indian population in much of the continent. In some parts Indians almost disappeared. The number of indegenous people in Central America was unknown, but it is estimated that as many as 90% of them perished from the same causes as their neighbors to the south.

South America was settled by both Spanish and Portuguese and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) gave Portugal possession of the northeastern and eastern coast of Brazil and Spain the northwestern and western coast of the continent. Central America was entirely settled by the Spanish.

Between 1808 and 1824, Simon Bolivar, Jose de San Martin, and others led popular uprisings to gain independence and after the Spanish defeat, seven countries were established in the Andes and adjacent regions: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. All these new states became formal republics, with constitutions similar, in most cases, to that of the United States; they were headed by a President with wide executive powers and had a legislature composed of two chambers.

The last two-hundred years of the history of these various South American countries is filled with struggles and upheavals, internal instability, and strife between rival political and economic groups. The rapid population growth of Andean countries from the beginning of the twentieth century was due more to natural increases rather than immigration. Substantial progress toward industrialization did not begin in some countries until after the First World War and most modernization did not occur until after the Second. Today, industrial production plays an important role in the economy of all the Andean countries and democratic regimes have finally begun to gain control and power. There are now clear indications of advancement toward more progressive social and political orders in most South American countries.

Immigration to the United States and Albuquerque:
Most Central and South Americans in Albuquerque are first generation immigrants who have arrived over the last thirty years. Some met and married American spouses and followed them to America. Most immigrants made the decision to live in New Mexico based upon climate, education, and job opportunities. Many of them are highly educated and some came here for advanced degrees. Several said that the fact that Spanish was commonly spoken and accepted in Albuquerque influenced their decision to settle here instead of other American cities.

Cultural Traditions:
As with many other cultures, ethnic cuisine plays a big part in the maintenance of culture. Latin American food goes hand-in-hand with social events. Brazilian dishes include a BBQ called churrasqueras and there is a Brazilian BBQ restaurant in Albuquerque. Black beans and rice mixed with any kind of meat is a common Saturday meal in Brazil. Although there is a Spanish tradition of this meal called Moros y Cristianos (Moors and Christians), this Brazilian tradition is said to have come from slaves who ate left-over scraps from animals butchered for their owners mixed with black beans and white rice, manioc flour and kale. Items such as maracuyá (passion fruit juice), which can be mixed with condensed milk to produce a dessert, were available at a local South American grocery store which has since gone out of business.

Bolivians and Venezuelans have a different cuisine than their Portuguese neighbors with dishes such as carnes mechadas, called pabellón, with white rice and black beans and fried plantains (tostones). They also make arepas (grilled corn patties with cheese), taqueños (cheese sticks rolled in pastry and fried), as well as flan (custard dessert). Venezuelan hallacas (similar to tamales) are very popular. Hallacas were originally a slave food consisting of corn flour wrapped in banana leaves with fillings that can include beef, potatoes, eggs, red pepper, or olives that vary by region. Some in the community make pan de jamón (bread stuffed with ham, raisins, cheese, and bacon) for Christmas.

El Salvadorians have a completely different cuisine than their southern neighbors. Among the foods the woman we spoke with liked to bring back from El Salvador were pupusas, which are a pastry filled with cheese, chicharrones, or beans, and sometimes with all three, in which case they are called pupusas revueltas.

The fact that Spanish is commonly spoken in New Mexico makes it somewhat easy for those who speak it to maintain fluency and pass the language on to their children. However, speaking Spanish with other Spanish speakers in New Mexico is often complicated by regional differences that can result in misunderstandings. Some from this community reported taking their children to South America annually to try and maintain these differences. Others watch South American telanovas on satellite TV. A small group speak the indigenous Andean languages of Quichua and Quechua, and Quichua is taught at UNM.

Traditional dress is often worn at public performances and presentations. Ecuadorian men wear a black poncho with black shorts and a white shirt with collar and cuffs. They also wear their hair in a single braid down the back and a black hat. Women typically wear a tightly pleated skirt with an embroidered underskirt and a blouse embroidered around the neck and cuffs that is commonly augmented by a necklace. Women's dress, hairstyles, and jewelry vary from community to community In Saraguro, for example, they wear a tendido which is a large woven necklace like a collar. They also wear silver earrings that are connected in back with a silver chain. The hair is braided in four strands and a silver pin (tupo) on a chain is hung from it. A hand-woven belt, sandals with a shoelace tie, and a woven wool shawl (baita) are also usually worn.

In Bolivia, birthdays presents are placed at the foot of the birthday child’s bed, sort of like Santa Claus. They open their presents and the day becomes their day. One Bolivian we spoke with continues this tradition in New Mexico.

Artistic Traditions:
Caribbean salsa and "Afro-Latin" music and dance have influences from Africa, Spain, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and New York and, today, are played throughout Latin America. Informal community gatherings with music and dance are important ways of expressing cultural traditions. Organizations, such as the South Broadway Cultural Center have brought artistis such as the Ballet Nacional de Venezuela and Irene Ferraro, a Venezuelan musician, to the city. The Cooperage is a popular place for Latin dance in Albuquerque. The Cooperage often features local salsa bands playing a variety of Latin American music and it attracts many people from the Caribbean and South America.

There was a Bolivian woman was importing Bolivian arts and crafts and selling them at a store she started in Albuquerque, the the store did not stay in business very long. And we were told that there is a Venezuelan sculptor, a Venezuelan folk artist, a Brazilian singer's group, and a Brazilian guitarist living here, but were unable to interview any of them.

A world famous Brazilian dancer and choreographer also calls Albuquerque home. She heads up a Brazilian dance troupe and performs at local venues such as the South Broadway Cultural Center. There is also a Brazilian drumming group in Albuquerque named Albuquerque Batucada. They employ snare and bass drums as well a salsa-style cow bells.

There is also a Brazilian capoeira group called Capoeira Pegadas that practices in the Nob Hill area. Capoeira is a very fluid form of martial arts/dance said to have been created by escaped African slaves hiding in the forests of Brazil in the 18th century or earlier. It is a mock combat dance that is typically accompanied by music from the one-stringed African berimbau, vocals, caxixi, and drums. The caxixi is a rattle woven from bast and filled with pebbles and seeds. In the base of the caxixi is a gourd disc which helps provide a sharper sound.

Brazilian capoeira is currently undergoing a renaissance and many groups are springing up around the world. Capoeira Pegadas was formed in 2001 and holds classes in across from the Hiland Theater on Central Avenue.

Annual Events and Festivals:
Because South America is in reality a continent made up of many different cultures in several different countries, there are few pan-continental; holidays. The Catholic religion is a common bond, but not all South American communities are devout Catholics. Among those who do practice Catholicism, Christmas is the most common holiday celebrated.

At Christmas, in Bolivia, Las Posadas is celebrated, but it is different than the New Mexicans version. People from the community and church come to each others houses and eat Pasteles de Navidad, made from meat, sweat meat, and sometimes cheese. Roscones, which are like doughnuts are also made during the Christmas celebration, which traditionally goes until January 6th (Epiphany) when the Tres Reyes, (three kings), come. On January 6th it is traditional to make buñuelos, which are a type of fry bread, for family and friends.

Easter is another important religious celebration in Bolivia. After mass on Holy Thursday, people go from church to church and try to visit at least seven. This is the number of times that Jesus went back and forth to Pilate and Herod. In each one of these visits a different prayer is offered. Since the churches in Albuquerque stay open late, it is easier to visit the requisite seven.

Among the Brazilians, Mardi Gras, or Carnival as it is known in Brazil, is a major annual event. For the last several years the day has been celebrated with a large party downtown Albuquerque sponsored by Tucanos Brazilian Grill.

Quite a few Bolivians in Albuquerque and the surrounding area get together on the 6th of August to celebrate Bolivia's Independence Day. One year they rented a museum in Santa Fe to celebrate. The informal gathering typically features Bolivan foods that people bring pot-luck and music is provided by local Bolivian and other musicians.

While there is no formal Chilean association either, there are two groups of Chileans who get togther annually to celebrate Chile’s Independence day, September 19th. Each group consists of approximately 30 families. They celebrate in different locations in the state, typically in National Forests or State Park picnic areas. The two groups are not competing so much as they are just different groups of friends. Chileans are not as devout as many of their Latin American neighbors and don’t tend to celebrate religious holidays as much.

Conclusions:
Many South American people in Albuquerque would like their neighbors to become more aware of their countries and cultures, their histories and environment. Cultural stereotypes, especially those that are a by-product of the war on drugs, have a negative impact. For example, portraying cocaine as a bad drug export gives no recognition to the traditional use coca has had as a medicinal and a sacred ritual plant. Indigenous mountain people could not have adapted to survive the high altitude of the Andes without the use of coca.

Summerfest gave South Americans a great opportunity to showcase to the public aspects of South American cultures.

As with many other cultures, South Americans would like a family-centered pan-cultural center where they could gather to speak Spanish and communally transmit their cultures to their kids. A participatory environment where they can promote their respective cultures. Ideally it would be open to people of all cultures who wanted to learn about and be a part of South American cultures.

With the exception of an on-again-off-again Brazilian Cultural Association, there are no formal country-specific South American organizations in Albuquerque. For the most part, the people we spoke with were not interested in forming any. The communities are small and spread out, and most importantly, everyone is so busy trying to make a living that no one has time to attend, let alone organize meetings. The closest thing to a formal cultural organization in the South American community is one set up mostly by and for students at the University of New Mexico, the Brazil Club. They can be contacted at: Student Activities Box 8 msc 03 2210, UNM, Albuquerque, NM 87131. Email: brazil@unm.edu